Zafaruddin abdus salam biography

Pakistani theoretical physicist (1926–1996)

For other disseminate with the name, see Abdus Salam (name).

Mohammad Abdus Salam^[4][5][6] (; pronounced[əbd̪ʊssəlaːm]; 29 January 1926 – 21 November 1996)^[7] was splendid Pakistani theoretical physicist. He shared greatness 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics become apparent to Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg lead to his contribution to the electroweak combining theory.^[8] He was the first Asiatic and the first scientist from guidebook Islamic country to receive a Altruist Prize and the second from threaten Islamic country to receive any Chemist Prize, after Anwar Sadat of Egypt.^[9]

Salam was scientific advisor to the Priesthood of Science and Technology in Pakistan from 1960 to 1974, a shuffle from which he played a senior and influential role in the swelling of the country's science infrastructure.^[9][10] Salam contributed to numerous developments in select and particle physics in Pakistan.^[10] Misstep was the founding director of character Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Office (SUPARCO), and responsible for the founding of the Theoretical Physics Group (TPG).^[11][12] For this, he is viewed bring in the "scientific father"^[5][13] of this program.^[14][15][16] In 1974, Abdus Salam departed plant his country in protest after justness Parliament of Pakistan unanimously passed well-organized parliamentary bill declaring members of distinction Ahmadiyya Muslim community, to which Salam belonged, non-Muslim.^[17] In 1998, following position country's Chagai-I nuclear tests, the Deliver a verdict of Pakistan issued a commemorative stomp on, as a part of "Scientists be frightened of Pakistan", to honour the services detailed Salam.^[18]

Salam's notable achievements include the Pati–Salam model, a Grand Unified Theory sand proposed along with Jogesh Pati mould 1974, magnetic photon, vector meson, pointless on supersymmetry and most importantly, electroweak theory, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize.^[8] Salam made copperplate major contribution in quantum field knowledge and in the advancement of Maths at Imperial College London. With crown student, Riazuddin, Salam made important assistance to the modern theory on neutrinos, neutron stars and black holes, style well as the work on modernising quantum mechanics and quantum field understanding. As a teacher and science advertiser, Salam is remembered as a leader and scientific father of mathematical increase in intensity theoretical physics in Pakistan during climax term as the chief scientific adviser to the president.^[10][19] Salam heavily discretionary to the rise of Pakistani physics within the global physics community.^[20][21] Establish until shortly before his death, Salam continued to contribute to physics, professor to advocate for the development observe science in third-world countries.^[22]

Biography

Youth and education

Abdus Salam was born on 29 Jan 1926 in the Punjab Province quite a lot of British India (now in Pakistan) get on to a Punjabi family professing Ahmadi Islam.^[23] Salam was son of Chaudhary Muhammad Hussain, a school teacher of Jhang and Hajirah who belonged to Faizullah Chak near Batala. Muhammad Hussain was a Jat and Hajirah a Kakkaezai..^[7]

The name Choudhary Muhammad Hussain gave fulfil son was Abd al-Salam which coiled "Servant of God". Abd means upstairs maid and Salam is one of distinction 99 names of God in distinction Qur'an. In English, his name practical usually transliterated as Abdus Salam, which should be understood as a free given name. His father followed grandeur custom of not giving a name. Later in his life he and Mohammad to his name.

Salam very completely established a reputation throughout Punjab grieve for outstanding brilliance and academic achievement. Kismet age 14, Salam scored the paramount marks ever recorded for the entry examination at the Punjab University.^[25] Perform won a full scholarship to grandeur Government College University of Lahore.^[26] Salam was a versatile scholar, interested always Urdu and English literature in which he excelled. After a month story Lahore, he went to Bombay with reference to study. In 1947, he came curb to Lahore.^[27] But he soon preferred up Mathematics as his concentration.^[28] Salam's mentor and tutors wanted him shut become an English teacher, but Salam decided to stick with Mathematics.^[29] Introduce a fourth-year student there, he promulgated his work on Srinivasa Ramanujan's sway in mathematics, and took his B.A. in Mathematics in 1944.^[30] His daddy wanted him to join the Amerindian Civil Service (ICS).^[29] In those generation, the ICS was the highest conceit for young university graduates and lay servants occupied a respected place delight in civil society.^[29] Respecting his father's hope, Salam tried for the Indian Railways but did not qualify for dignity service as he failed the curative optical tests.^[29] The results further over that Salam failed a mechanical eat required by railway engineers to snatch a commission in the Railways, countryside that he was too young examination compete for the job.^[29] Therefore, say publicly Railways rejected Salam's job application.^[29] Time in Lahore, Salam went on fro attend the graduate school of Make College University.^[29] He received his Dam in Mathematics from the Government Faculty University in 1946.^[22] That same collection, he was awarded a scholarship stop St John's College, Cambridge, where good taste completed a BA degree with Bent over First-Class Honours in Mathematics and Physics in 1949.^[31] In 1950, he reactionary the Smith's Prize from Cambridge Routine for the most outstanding pre-doctoral charge to Physics.^[32] After finishing his gradation, Fred Hoyle advised Salam to splash out another year in the Cavendish Work to do research in experimental physics, but Salam had no patience shelter carrying out long experiments in probity laboratory.^[29] Salam returned to Jhang present-day renewed his scholarship and returned hide the United Kingdom to do doctorate.^[29]

He obtained a PhD degree intimate theoretical physics from the Cavendish Work at Cambridge.^[33][34] His doctoral thesis highborn "Developments in quantum theory of fields" contained comprehensive and fundamental work take on quantum electrodynamics.^[35] By the time quarrel was published in 1951, it abstruse already gained him an international well-brought-up and the Adams Prize.^[36] During authority doctoral studies, his mentors challenged him to solve within one year pull out all the stops intractable problem which had defied much great minds as Paul Dirac plus Richard Feynman.^[29] Within six months, Salam had found a solution for description renormalization of meson theory. As recognized proposed the solution at the Plug Laboratory, Salam had attracted the consideration of Hans Bethe, J. Robert Oppenheimer and Dirac.^[29]

Academic career

After receiving his degree in 1951, Salam returned to Metropolis at the Government College University laugh a Professor of Mathematics where pacify remained till 1954. In 1952, be active was appointed professor and Chair imitation the Department of Mathematics at righteousness neighbouring University of the Punjab. Calculate the latter capacity, Salam sought success update the university curriculum, introducing neat as a pin course in Quantum mechanics as topping part of the undergraduate curriculum.^[37] But, this initiative was soon reverted indifferent to the Vice-Chancellor, and Salam decided fulfill teach an evening course in Quantum Mechanics outside the regular curriculum.^[38] As Salam enjoyed a mixed popularity stop in midsentence the university, he began to regulate the education of students who were particularly influenced by him.^[39] As great result, Riazuddin remained the only disciple of Salam who had the freedom to study under Salam at birth undergraduate and post-graduate level in City, and post-doctoral level in Cambridge Medical centre. In 1953, Salam was unable all round establish a research institute in City, as he faced strong opposition escape his peers.^[40] In 1954, Salam took fellowship and became one of rank earliest fellows of the Pakistan Institution of Sciences. As a result translate 1953 Lahore riots, Salam went accent to Cambridge and joined St John's College, and took a position little a professor of mathematics in 1954.^[41] In 1957, he was invited give a positive response take a chair at Imperial Faculty, London, and he and Paul Matthews went on to set up rank Theoretical Physics Group at Imperial College.^[42] As time passed, this department became one of the prestigious research departments that included well known physicists much as Steven Weinberg, Tom Kibble, Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, Riazuddin, forward John Ward.

In 1957, Punjab Code of practice conferred Salam with an Honorary degree for his contribution in Particle physics.^[43] The same year with help diverge his mentor, Salam launched a erudition programme for his students in Pakistan. Salam retained strong links with Pakistan, and visited his country from at an earlier time to time.^[44] At Cambridge and Kinglike College he formed a group reminisce theoretical physicists, the majority of whom were his Pakistani students. At set-up 33, Salam became one of goodness youngest persons to be elected on the rocks Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1959.^[7] Salam took a interest at the Princeton University in 1959, where he met with J. Parliamentarian Oppenheimer^[45] and to whom he nip his research work on neutrinos.^[46] Oppenheimer and Salam discussed the foundation promote to electrodynamics, problems and their solution.^[47] Consummate dedicated personal assistant was Jean Bouckley. In 1980, Salam became a bizarre fellow of the Bangladesh Academy follow Sciences.^[48]

Scientific career

Early in his career, Salam made an important and significant part in quantum electrodynamics and quantum policy theory, including its extension into atom and nuclear physics. In his completely career in Pakistan, Salam was gravely interested in mathematical series and their relation to physics. Salam had struck an influential role in the move up of nuclear physics, but he maintain and dedicated himself to mathematics unthinkable theoretical physics and focused Pakistan success do more research in theoretical physics.^[29] However, he regarded nuclear physics (nuclear fission and nuclear power) as trig non-pioneering part of physics as live had already "happened".^[29] Even in Pakistan, Salam was the leading driving facade in theoretical physics, with many scientists he continued to influence and raise to keep their work on quixotic physics.^[29]

Salam had a prolific research growth in theoretical and high-energy physics.^[49] Salam had worked on theory of greatness neutrino – an elusive particle lose one\'s train of thought was first postulated by Wolfgang Pauli in the 1930s. Salam introduced chiral symmetry in the theory of neutrinos. The introduction of chiral symmetry hollow crucial role in subsequent development look up to the theory of electroweak interactions.^[50] Salam later passed his work to Riazuddin, who made pioneering contributions in neutrinos. Salam introduced the massive Higgs bosons to the theory of the Foul Model, where he later predicted position existence of proton decay. In 1963, Salam published his theoretical work drag the vector meson. The paper not native bizarre the interaction of vector meson, photon (vector electrodynamics), and the renormalisation get on to vector mesons' known mass after justness interaction.^[51] In 1961, Salam began brave work with John Clive Ward foreseeable symmetries and electroweak unification.^[52][53] In 1964, Salam and Ward worked on span Gauge theory for the weak deliver electromagnetic interaction, subsequently obtaining SU(2) × U(1) model. Salam was convinced lapse all the elementary particle interactions escalate actually the gauge interactions.^[54] In 1968, together with Weinberg and Sheldon Glashow, Salam formulated the mathematical concept addict their work. While in Imperial Institution, Salam, along with Glashow and Jeffrey Goldstone, mathematically proved the Goldstone's statement, that a massless spin-zero object oxidation appear in a theory as a-okay result of spontaneous breaking of deft continuous global symmetry.^[54] In 1967-8, Salam and Weinberg incorporated the Higgs means of expression into Glashow's discovery, giving it capital modern form in electroweak theory, deliver thus theorised half of the Customary Model.^[55] In 1968, together with Physicist and Sheldon Glashow, Salam finally formulated the mathematical concept of their dike.

In 1966, Salam carried out extreme work on a hypothetical particle. Salam showed the possible electromagnetic interaction amidst the Magnetic monopole and the C-violation, thus he formulated the magnetic photon.^[56]

Following the publication of PRL Symmetry Disintegration papers in 1964, Steven Weinberg take Salam were the first to fasten the Higgs mechanism to electroweak orderliness breaking. Salam provided a mathematical plausibility for the interaction between the Higgs boson and the electroweak symmetry theory.^[57]

In 1972, Salam began to work identify Indian-American theoretical physicist Jogesh Pati. Pati wrote to Salam several times eloquent interest to work under Salam's level, in response to which Salam in the end invited Pati to the ICTP individual instruction in Pakistan. Salam suggested to Pati that there should be some profound reason why the protons and electrons are so different and yet lug equal but opposite electric charge. Protons are composed of quarks, but honesty electroweak theory was concerned only liking the electrons and neutrinos, with trinket postulated about quarks. If all give an account of nature's ingredients could be brought unintelligent in one new symmetry, it potency reveal a reason for the indefinite features of these particles and glory forces they feel. This led follow the development of Pati–Salam model cut down particle physics.^[58] In 1973, Salam extra Jogesh Pati were the first merriment notice that since Quarks and Leptons have very similar SU(2) × U(1) representation content, they all may enjoy similar entities.^[59] They provided a straightforward realisation of the quark-lepton symmetry stomach-turning postulating that lepton number was unembellished fourth quark colour, dubbed "violet".^[60]

Physicists difficult believed that there were four first forces of nature: the gravitational passageway, the strong and weak nuclear bracing reserves, and the electromagnetic force. Salam locked away worked on the unification of these forces from 1959 with Glashow mount Weinberg. While at Imperial College Writer, Salam successfully showed that weak fissionable forces are not really different getaway electromagnetic forces, and two could inter-convert. Salam provided a theory that shows the unification of two fundamental revive of nature, weak nuclear forces roost the electromagnetic forces, one into another.^[49] Glashow had also formulated the equal work, and the theory was leagued in 1966. In 1967, Salam true-blue the electroweak unification theory mathematically, endure finally published the papers. For that achievement, Salam, Glashow, and Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979. The Nobel Prize Base paid tribute to the scientists gift issued a statement saying: "For their contributions to the theory of decency unified weak and electromagnetic interaction among elementary particles, including, inter alia, rendering prediction of the weak neutral current".^[8] Salam took the Nobel Prize garter to the house of his grass professor, Anilendra Ganguly, who taught him at the Sanatan Dharma College ploy Lahore, and placed the medal turn his neck, stating "Mr Anilendra Ganguly this medal is a result domination your teaching and love of reckoning that you instilled in me".^[61] Deduce the 1970s Salam continued trying have a high opinion of unify forces by including the welldefined interaction in a grand unified view.

Government work

Abdus Salam returned to Pakistan in 1960 to take charge provision a government post given to him by President Ayub Khan. From brew independence in 1947 after the Embankment of India, Pakistan has never challenging a coherent science policy, and resolution expenditure on research and development was only ~1.0% of Pakistan's GDP.^[62] Much the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission vile was located in a small elbow-room, and less than 10 scientists were working on fundamental physics concepts.^[63] Salam replaced Salimuzzaman Siddiqui as the Information Advisor, and became first Member (technical) of PAEC. Salam expanded the network of physics research and development fall apart Pakistan by sending more than Cardinal scientists abroad.^[64] In 1961 he approached President Khan to set up dignity country's first national space agency,^[65] in this manner on 16 September 1961 the Space brook Upper Atmosphere Research Commission was great, with Salam as its first director.^[65] Before 1960, very little work never-ending scientific development was done, and mathematical activities in Pakistan were almost diminished.^[clarify] Salam called Ishfaq Ahmad, a thermonuclear physicist, who had left for Svizzera where he joined CERN, back equal Pakistan. With the support of Salam, PAEC established PAEC Lahore Center-6, liven up Ishfaq Ahmad as its first director.^[66] In 1967, Salam became a inside and administrative figure to lead high-mindedness research in Theoretical and Particle physics.^[20] With the establishment of the School of Physics at Quaid-e-Azam University, check in theoretical and particle physics was engaged.^[20] Under Salam's direction, physicists tackled the greatest outstanding problems in physics and mathematics^[20] and their physics analysis reached a point that prompted cosmopolitan recognition of Pakistani physicists.^[10]

From the Decennium, Salam had tried establishing high-powered trial institutes in Pakistan, though he was unable to do so. He evasive PAEC Headquarters to a bigger construction, and established research laboratories all sign over the country.^[67] On the direction receive Salam, Ishrat Hussain Usmani set manufacture plutonium and uranium exploration committees here and there in the country. In October 1961, Salam travelled to the United States abide signed a space co-operation agreement among Pakistan and US. In November 1961, the US National Aeronautics and Distance end to end Administration (NASA) started to build adroit space facility – Flight Test Heart (FTC) – at Sonmiani, a maritime town in Balochistan Province. Salam served as its first technical director.

Salam played an influential and significant r“le in Pakistan's development of nuclear vigour for peaceful purposes. In 1964, oversight was made head of Pakistan's IAEA delegation and represented Pakistan for simple decade.^[68] The same year, Salam one Munir Ahmad Khan – his ultimate friend and contemporary at Government School University. Khan was the first obtain in the IAEA that Salam challenging consulted about the establishment of prestige International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), a research physics institution, in Trieste, Italy. With an agreement signed eradicate IAEA, the ICTP was set calling with Salam as its first conductor. At IAEA, Salam had advocated magnanimity importance of nuclear power plants detain his country.^[69] It was due happen next his effort that in 1965, Canada and Pakistan signed a nuclear liveliness co-operation deal. Salam obtained permission be different President Ayub Khan – against illustriousness wishes of his own government functionaries – to set up the Metropolis Nuclear Power Plant.^[70] Also in 1965, led by Salam, the United States and Pakistan signed an agreement delight in which the US provided Pakistan glossed a small research reactor (PARR-I). Salam had a long-held dream to locate a research institute in Pakistan, which he had advocated for on haunt occasions. In 1965 again, Salam skull architect Edward Durell Stone signed deft contract for the establishment of leadership Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science prosperous Technology (PINSTECH) at Nilore, Islamabad.^[71]

Space programme

Main article: Space and Upper Atmosphere Delving Commission

In early 1961, Salam approached Supervisor Khan to lay the foundations show consideration for Pakistan's first executive agency to coordinate space research.^[65] By executive order trumped-up story 16 September 1961 the Space favour Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) was established with Salam founding director.^[65] Salam immediately travelled to the United States, where he signed a space co-operation agreement with the US Government. Break through November 1961, NASA built the Soaring Test Center in Balochistan Province. By means of this time, Salam visited the Pakistan Air Force Academy where he fall over with Air Commodore (Brigadier-General) Wladyslaw Turowicz – a Polish military scientist topmost an aerospace engineer.^[72] Turowicz was idea the first technical director of probity space centre, and a programme slant rocket testing ensued. In 1964, span in the US Salam visited class Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and trip over with nuclear engineers Salim Mehmud plus Tariq Mustafa.^[73] Salam signed another treaty with the NASA which launched unembellished programme to provide training to Pakistan's scientists and engineers.^[73] Both nuclear engineers returned to Pakistan and were inducted into SUPARCO.^[65]

Nuclear weapons programme

See also: Project-706 § Organization, and Pakistan and weapons carry mass destruction

Salam knew the importance dig up nuclear technology in Pakistan, for neutral and peaceful purposes.^[74] But, according make somebody's acquaintance his biographers, Salam played an indistinct role in Pakistan's own atomic bombard project. As late as the Decade, Salam made an unsuccessful proposal be attracted to the establishment of a nuclear ammunition reprocessing plant, but it was hang around on economic grounds by Ayub Khan.^[74] According to Rehman, Salam's influence boast nuclear development was diminished as make public as 1974, and he became depreciating of Bhutto's control over science.^[74] On the contrary Salam personally did not terminate fulfil connection with the scientists working take back the theoretical physics division at PAEC.^[75] As early as 1972–73, he confidential been a great advocate for leadership atomic bomb project,^[76] but subsequently took a stance against it after subside fell out with Bhutto over description Second Amendment to the Constitution insinuate Pakistan which declared the Ahmaddiya caption to be non-Islamic.^[76]

In 1965, Salam malign the establishing of the nuclear investigating institute – PINSTECH.^[77] In 1965, the plutonium Pakistan Atomic Research Reactor (PARR-I) went weighty under Salams' leadership.^[75] In 1973, Salam proposed the idea of establishing make illegal annual college to promote scientific activities in the country to the President of PAEC, Munir Khan, who popular and fully supported the idea. That led to the establishment of distinction International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics and Contemporary Needs (INSC), where command year since 1976 scientists from talented over the world come to Pakistan to interact with local scientists. Say publicly first annual INSC conference was set aside on advanced particle and nuclear physics.

In November 1971, Salam met down Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in his domicile, and following Bhutto's advice, went take in hand the United States to avoid nobility Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.^[78] Salam traveled to the US and returned do Pakistan with scientific literature about grandeur Manhattan Project,^[79] and calculations involving minute bombs.^[76] In 1972, the Government grounding Pakistan learned about the development grade of the first atomic bomb extreme under the Indian nuclear programme. Sponsorship 20 January 1972, Salam, as Discipline art Advisor to the President of Pakistan, managed and participated in a colour meeting of nuclear scientists with ex- Prime Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, presume Multan, known as the 'Multan Meeting'. At this meeting Bhutto orchestrated honesty development of a deterrence programme.^[80][81] Condescension the meeting, only I. H. Usmani protested, believing that the country abstruse neither the facilities or talent tell somebody to carry out such an ambitious scold technologically demanding project, whilst Salam remained quiet.^[82] Here, Bhutto entrusted Salam ray appointed Munir Khan as Chairman go with PAEC, and head of the nuclear bomb program, as Salam had corroborated Khan.^[83] A few months after glory meeting, Salam, Khan, and Riazuddin, decrease with Bhutto in his residence pivot the scientists briefed him about grandeur nuclear weapons program.^[84] After the period, Salam established the 'Theoretical Physics Group' (TPG) in PAEC. Salam led innovative work at TPG until 1974.^[76][85][86]

An posting was set up for Salam get the message the Prime Ministers' Secretariat by anathema of Bhutto.^[74] Salam immediately started accept motivate and invite scientists to set off work with PAEC in the transaction of fission weapons.^[74] In December 1972, two theoretical physicists working at prestige International Centre for Theoretical Physics were asked by Salam to report compulsion Munir Ahmad Khan, the scientific principal of the program.^[87] This marked righteousness beginning of the TPG, reporting tangentially to Salam.^[88] The TPG, in PAEC, was assigned to conduct research groove fast neutron calculations, hydrodynamics (how rendering explosion produced by a chain reply might behave), problems of neutron dissemination, and the development of theoretical designs of Pakistan's nuclear weapon devices.^[89] Succeeding, the TPG under Riazuddin began castigate directly report to Salam, and nobility work on the theoretical design addict the nuclear weapon was completed diminution 1977.^[90] In 1972, Salam formed probity Mathematical Physics Group, under Raziuddin Siddiqui, that was charged, with TPG, take up again carrying out research in the knowledge of simultaneity during the detonation appearance, and the mathematics involved in justness theory of nuclear fission.^[91] Following India's surprise nuclear test – Pokhran-I – in 1974, Munir Ahmad Khan had called deft meeting to initiate work on erior atomic bomb. Salam was there become calm Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi was appointed mind of the Directorate of Technical Happening (DTD) in PAEC.^[92]

The DTD was location up to co-ordinate the work give a miss the various specialised groups of scientists and engineers working on different aspects of the atomic bomb.^[84] The locution "bomb" was never used in that meeting, but the participants fully conventional what was being discussed.^[84] In Parade 1974, Salam and Khan also long-established the Wah Group Scientist that was charged with manufacturing materials, explosive lenses and triggering mechanism development of authority weapon.^[93] Following the setting up emblematic DTD, Salam, Riazuddin and Munir Ahmad Khan, visited the Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF) where they held talks refined senior military engineers led by POF chairman Lieutenant-General Qamar Ali Mirza.^[11] Grasp was there that the Corps characteristic Engineers built the Metallurgical Laboratory train in Wah Cantonment in 1976.^[94] Salam remained associated with the nuclear weapons protocol until mid-1974, when he left description country after Ahmadi were declared non-Muslims by the Pakistani Parliament.^[17] His thought relations with Prime minister Bhutto hew down out and turned into open ill will after the Ahmadiyya Community was ostensible as not-Islamic; he lodged a get out and powerful protest against Bhutto with respect to this issue and gave great appraisal to Bhutto over his control sign science.^[76] In spite of this, Salam maintained close relations with the select physics division at PAEC who booked him informed about the status take in the calculations needed to calculate leadership performance of the atomic bomb, according to Norman Dombey.^[76] After seeing Asiatic aggression, the Siachen conflict in Septrional Pakistan, followed by India's Operation Brasstacks in Southern Pakistan, Salam again recent his ties with senior scientists position in the atomic bomb projects, who had kept him informed about high-mindedness scientific development of the program.^[76] Moniker the 1980s, Salam personally approved indefinite appointments and a large influx adequate Pakistani scientists to the associateship document at ICTP and CERN, and held in research in theoretical physics comprise his students at the ICTP.^[76]

In 2008, Indian scholar Ravi Singh noted pustule his book The Military Factor uncover Pakistan that, "in 1978, Abdus Salam with PAEC officials, paid a hidden visit to China, and was conducive in initiating industrial nuclear cooperation betwixt the two countries."^[82] Although he locked away left the country, Salam did grizzle demand hesitate to advise the PAEC ahead Theoretical and Mathematical Physics Group forethought important scientific matters, and kept reward close association with TPG and PAEC.^[95]

Advocacy for science

In 1964, Salam founded distinction International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Trieste, in Italy and served whereas its director until 1993.^[96] In 1974, he founded the International Nathiagali Season College (INSC) to promote science magnify Pakistan.^[97] The INSC is an oneyear meeting of scientists from all passing on the world who come to Pakistan and hold discussions on physics tube science.^[97] Even today, the INSC holds annual meetings, and Salam's pupil Riazuddin has been its director since lying start.^[98]

In 1997, the scientists at ICTP commemorated Salam and renamed ICTP kind the "Abdus Salam International Centre take possession of Theoretical Physics". Throughout the years, take steps served on a number of Allied Nations committees concerning science and application in developing countries.^[36] Salam also supported the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) and was a leading velocity in the creation of a back copy of international centres dedicated to glory advancement of science and technology.^[99]

During systematic visit to the Institute of Physics at Quaid-i-Azam University in 1979, Salam explained after receiving an award: Physicists believed there are four fundamental strengthening of nature; the gravitational force, blue blood the gentry weak and strong nuclear force, present-day the electromagnetic force.^{[relevant?][100]} Salam was dialect trig firm believer that "scientific thought quite good the common heritage of mankind", existing that developing nations needed to copy themselves, and invest in their peter out scientists to boost development and decrease the gap between the Global Southmost and the Global North, thus contributory to a more peaceful world.^[101]

In 1981, Salam became a founding member warrant the World Cultural Council.^[102]

Although Salam maintain equilibrium Pakistan, he did not terminate sovereignty connection to home.^[103] He continued chilling Pakistan's scientists to ICTP, and unfair a research programme for them.^[104] Patronize prominent scientists, including Ghulam Murtaza, Riazuddin, Kamaluddin Ahmed, Faheem Hussain, Raziuddin Siddiqui, Munir Ahmad Khan, Ishfaq Ahmad, squeeze I. H. Usmani, considered him gorilla their mentor and a teacher.^{[citation needed]}

Personal life

Abdus Salam was a very unofficial individual, who kept his public existing personal lives quite separate.^[7] He hitched twice; first time to a relation, the second time as well look accordance with Islamic law.^[105][106] At culminate death, he was survived by match up daughters and a son by enthrone first wife, and a son essential daughter by his second, Professor Woman Louise Johnson, formerly Professor of molecular biophysics at Oxford University. Two snatch his daughters are Anisa Bushra Salam Bajwa and Aziza Rahman.^{[citation needed]}

Religion

Salam was an Ahmadi,^[36] who saw his sanctuary as a fundamental part of potentate scientific work. He once wrote digress "the Holy Quran enjoins us prefer reflect on the verities of Allah's created laws of nature; however, saunter our generation has been privileged hype glimpse a part of His lay out is a bounty and a finesse for which I render thanks corresponding a humble heart."^{[36][check quotation syntax]} Not later than his acceptance speech for the Philanthropist Prize in Physics, Salam quoted verses from the Quran and stated:

"Thou seest not, in the creation give evidence the All-merciful any imperfection, Return cautious gaze, seest thou any fissure? Spread Return thy gaze, again and re-evaluate. Thy gaze, Comes back to thee dazzled, aweary." (67:3–4) This, in upshot, is the faith of all physicists; the deeper we seek, the added is our wonder excited, the build on is the dazzlement for our gaze.^[107]

In 1974, the Pakistan parliament made honourableness Second Amendment to the Constitution late Pakistan that declared Ahmadis to rectify non-Muslim. In protest, Salam left Pakistan for London. After his departure, sharp-tasting did not completely cut his bind to Pakistan, and kept a base association with the Theoretical Physics Set as well as academic scientists alien the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission.^[100]

Death

Abdus Salam died on 21 November 1996 rag the age of 70 in Metropolis, England, from progressive supranuclear palsy.^[108] Ruler body was returned to Pakistan take precedence kept in Darul Ziafat, where severe 13,000 men and women visited return to pay their last respects. Approximately 30,000 people attended his funeral prayers.^[109]

Salam was buried in Bahishti Maqbara, a burial ground established by the Ahmadiyya Community distrust Rabwah, Punjab, Pakistan, next to enthrone parents' graves. The epitaph on top tomb initially read "First Muslim Philanthropist Laureate". The Pakistani government removed "Muslim" and left only his name barney the headstone. They are the unique nation to officially declare that Ahmadis are non-Muslim.^[110] The word "Muslim" was initially obscured on the orders a selection of a local magistrate before moving view the national level.^[111] Under Ordinance XX of 1984,^[112][113] being an Ahmadi, unquestionable was considered a non-Muslim according secure the definition provided in the More Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan.^[114]

Legacy

His craving for nationalism is symbolized blow by his wish to be secret in his own homeland... He luxurious his country and its soil. Amazement projected him as a hero, marvellous father, and role model for escort young scientists...

— Masud Ahmad, on Salam's legacy^[14]

Salam's work in Pakistan has been long way reaching and regarded as highly essential. He is remembered by his titled classes and students as the "father female Pakistan's school of Theoretical Physics" orangutan well as Pakistan's science. Salam was a charismatic and iconic figure, uncluttered symbol among them of what they were working or researching toward flowerbed their fields.^[5][13][14] His students, fellow scientists and engineers, remembered him as dazzling teacher, and engaging researcher who would also influence others to do nobility same.^[49] The International Centre for Unproven Physics established by Salam has prolonged to train scientists from developing countries.^[115] Salam founded the Space Research Task of and was its first director.^[49] In 1998, the Government of Pakistan issued a commemorative stamp to fairness Salam as part of its "Scientists of Pakistan" series.^[18] His alma connate, Government College Lahore, now a code of practice, has the Abdus Salam Chair unveil Physics and Abdus Salam School be keen on Mathematical Sciences named after him.^[116]The Abdus Salam Chair was also established insert his honour at the Syed Character Ali School of Science and Application in the Lahore University of Administration Sciences.^[117] He made a significant assessment towards the 2012 success in description search for the Higgs boson.^[118]

Salam has been commemorated by noted and attentiongrabbing Pakistani scientists, who were also sovereign students. Many scientists have recalled their college experiences. Ghulam Murtaza, a associate lecturer of plasma physics at the Rule College University and student of Salam, wrote:

When Dr. Salam was afflict deliver a lecture, the hall would be packed and although the thesis was Particle Physics, his manner fairy story eloquence was such as if noteworthy was talking about literature. When inaccuracy finished his lectures, listeners would many times burst into spontaneous applause and check up him a standing ovation. People overrun all parts of the world would come to Imperial College and take a crack at Dr. Salam's help. He would interaction a patient hearing to everyone with those who were talking nonsense. Put your feet up treated everyone with respect and pity and never belittled or offended solitary. Dr. Salam's strength was that proceed could "sift jewels from the sand".^[119]

Ishfaq Ahmad, a lifelong friend of Salam recalls:

Dr Salam was responsible divulge sending about 500 physicists, mathematicians limit scientists from Pakistan, for PhD's draw attention to the best institutions in UK crucial USA.^[119]

In August 1996 another lifelong boon companion, Munir Ahmad Khan, met Salam kick up a fuss Oxford. Khan, who headed the atomic weapons and nuclear energy programmes, said:

My last meeting with Abdus Salam was only three months ago. Tiara disease had taken its toll delighted he was unable to talk. Hitherto he understood what was said. Wild told him about the celebration set aside in Pakistan on his seventieth memorialization. He kept staring at me. Unquestionable had risen above praise. As Irrational rose to leave he pressed trough hand to express his feelings monkey if he wanted to thank every one who had said kind words review him. Dr. Abdus Salam had bottomless love for Pakistan in spite prepare the fact that he was planned unfairly and indifferently by his sign country. It became more and mega difficult for him to come turn into Pakistan and this hurt him from the bottom of one`. Now he has returned home at long last, to rest in peace for shrewd in the soil that he luxurious so much. May be in character years to come we will disbelief above our prejudice and own him and give him, after his passing away, what we could not when earth was alive. We Pakistanis may designate to ignore Dr. Salam, but goodness world at large will always bear in mind him.^[119]

However, Salam's legacy is often unnoticed in the Pakistani education system hatred his achievements. According to the film 'Salam: The First ****** Nobel Laureate,' very few young Pakistanis have heard of him, and his name equitable not mentioned in Pakistani school textbooks.^[120][121] In 2020, a group of genre belonging to the State Youth Legislative body desecrated an image of Salam renounce was present at a college pin down Gujranwala, while chanting slogans against nobleness Ahmadiyya community.^[122] This deliberate effort be introduced to stifle mention of Salam is attributed to Salam belonging to the Ahmadiyya Muslim community, who have faced state-sponsored discrimination since the 1970s.

Documentaries verdict Abdus Salam

Salam – the film

LLC in motion formally researching and developing a release on the science and life domination Abdus Salam in 2004, two discretion after the producers had conceived long-awaited the idea. A fundraising teaser was released by Kailoola Productions to fall with Salam's birth anniversary on 29 January 2017.^[123] The post-production phase warrant this documentary film, pending funding, evolution estimated at US$150,000. The film Salam: The First ****** Nobel Laureate, forced by the Indian-American documentary filmmaker Anand Kamalakar, was announced in 2018 meticulous released on Netflix in October 2019.^{[124][citation needed]}

Abdus Salam

Pilgrim Films released The Oomph of Symmetry in September 2011.^[125] Their press release describes it as introduction "the extraordinary figure of Abdus Salam, who not only was an unforgettable scientist but also a generous concerned and a valuable person. His prosperous and busy life was an honourable quest for symmetry, that he chased in the universe of physical record and in the world of individual beings."^[126]

Honours

Dr. Salam's genius was like dexterous magic... And there was always eminence element of eastern mysticism in her highness ideas that left one wondering anyhow to fathom his genius...

— Masud Ahmad, conformation Abdus Salam^[14]

Salam was elected to righteousness American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971, the United States State Academy of Sciences in 1979, soar the American Philosophical Society in 1992.^{[127][128][129]} In 1997, scientists at ICTP renamed the institute as the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics mend the honour of Salam.^[130] Salam's work have been recognised in Pakistan, orangutan his students have openly spoken illustrious stressed the importance of Science boss Technology in Pakistan. In 1999, suitable the recommendation of Ishfaq Ahmad, interpretation Government of Pakistan led the formation of the Abdus Salam Chair appearance Physics at the Government College University.^[131] On 22 November 2009, the Leader of the Abdus Salam International Focal point for Theoretical Physics gifted the advanced Nobel Prize Certificate to his alma mater.^[132] In 2011, GCU's Salam Pew in Physics held a one-day-long conversation that was attributed to Abdus Salam.^[131] Salam's students Ghulam Murtaza, Pervez Hoodbhoy, Riazuddin and Tariq Zaidi discussed honesty life and works of Salam, deliver brought to light his achievements acquire Pakistan and Physics.^[131] While covering authority media converge on Salam's tribute, The News International, referred to Salam style the "great Pakistan scientist".^[133]

In 1998, excellence Edward A. Bouchet-ICTP Institute was renamed as the Edward Bouchet Abdus Salam Institute.^[134] In 2003, the Government medium Punjab created an institute of assistance for the Mathematical Sciences, the Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences, get Salam's Alma mater – Government Institution University.^[135]

That it has taken nearly one decades for this country to ignominy a globally renowned scientist who was one of its own, is exceptional sad reflection of the priorities go hold sway here... For Dr Salam was an Ahmadi, a persecuted age in Pakistan, and his faith in or by comparison than his towering achievements was decency yardstick by which he was judged.

— Dawn^[136]

In 2008, in an opinion socket, Daily Times called Salam "one hillock the greatest scientists Pakistan has sharpwitted produced".^[137]failed verification |date=March 2024 |reason=The take on piece states "I ended my editorial last week by introducing a phrase – ‘spontaneous symmetry breaking’ – and a reference to Academic Abdus Salam". Perhaps the statement was in that previous column.

In 2015, the Academy of Young Researchers very last Scholars, Lahore, renamed its library rightfully the "Abdus Salam Library".^[138] In say publicly town of Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, realistically the headquarters of the Canadian arm of the Ahmadiyya Community, of which Abdus Salam was a member, influence community has named a street make something stand out him, 'Abdus Salam Street',^[139] while cram CERN in Geneva, Switzerland there even-handed 'Route Salam'. Additionally, there are bend over annual Abdus Salam science fairs, rob held in Canada and the time away in the US. Each is union as a National event for sour scientists from the Ahmadiyya Community gauzy an effort to motivate youth advance scientific endeavour.^[140]

On 6 December 2016, Pakistan's Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif approved dignity renaming of Quaid-i-Azam University's (QAU) physics centre to the Professor Abdus Salam Center for Physics. It was further announced that the Professor Abdus Salam Fellowship will be established, which last wishes include five annual fully funded Asian PhD students in the field stand for Physics in "leading international universities".^[141]

In Nov 2020, English Heritage erected a grim plaque in Salam's honour in Catchfly Road, Putney, London, at the boarding house that was his London home select almost 40 years.^[142][143]

In June 2023, Kinglike College, London announced the renaming use up its Imperial College Central Library primate the Abdus Salam Library.^[144]

Awards and recognition

In 1979, Salam was awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics, along discharge Glashow and Weinberg, For their donations to the theory of the at one weak and electromagnetic interaction between uncomplicated particles, including, inter alia, the foretelling of the weak neutral current.^[8] Salam received high civil and science glory from all over the world.^[145] Salam is recipient of first high laical awards – Star of Pakistan (1959) and the Nishan-e-Imtiaz (1979) – awarded by the President of Pakistan endorse Salams' outstanding services to Pakistan.^[145] Representation National Center for Physics (NCP) contains an Abdus Salam Museum dedicated proficient the life of Salam and reward work as he discovered and formulated the Electroweak Theory.^[10] Below is interpretation list of awards that were presented to Salam in his lifetime.