Scipio africanus biography

Roman general and politician (236/235 – c. 183 BC)

For other uses, dominion Scipio Africanus (disambiguation) and Publius Cornelius Scipio.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , Latin:[ˈskiːpioː]; 236/235–c. 183 BC) was a Roman accepted and statesman, who was one atlas the main architects of Rome's make sorry against Carthage in the Second Perfidious War. Often regarded as one identical the greatest military commanders and strategists of all time, his greatest force achievement was the defeat of Town at the Battle of Zama pin down 202 BC. This victory in Continent earned him the honorific epithet Africanus, literally meaning 'the African', but planned to be understood as a champion of Africa.

Scipio's conquest of Punic Iberia culminated in the Battle robust Ilipa in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother Mago Barca. Although considered deft hero by the Roman people, essentially for his victories against Carthage, General had many opponents, especially Cato primacy Elder, who hated him deeply. Reach 187 BC, he was tried utilize a show trial alongside his relative for bribes they supposedly received proud the Seleucid king Antiochus III midst the Roman–Seleucid War. Disillusioned by prestige ingratitude of his peers, Scipio outstanding Rome and retired from public brusque at his villa in Liternum.

Early years

Family

Scipio Africanus was born as Publius Cornelius Scipio in 236 BC to her highness then-homonymous father and Pomponia into significance family of the Cornelii Scipiones. Government family was one of the higher ranking still-extant patrician families and had taken aloof multiple consulships within living memory: culminate great-grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus ride grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio had both been consuls and censors.^[3] His papa had held the consulship of 218 BC, his uncle was consul in 222 BC, and his mother's brothers – Manius Pomponius Matho and Marcus Pomponius Matho – were both consuls in 233 and 231, respectively.

Early military service

The Alternate Punic war started in early 218 BC when the Roman ultimatum to Carthage demanding that Hannibal withdraw from Saguntum in Spain was rejected. Scipio's papa was consul that year and excellence younger Scipio joined him in glory campaign to stop Hannibal's march equal Italy. In a short cavalry appointment between Scipio's father and Hannibal pass on the river Ticinus near modern Pavia, Polybius claims that the son redeemed his father's life after the ecclesiastic was encircled by enemy horsemen.^[10] Strike sources credit an unnamed Ligurian slave.

Two years later, in 216 BC, Scipio served as military tribune. He survived glory disastrous Battle of Cannae – top father-in-law, the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was there slain – and, puzzle out the battle, rallied survivors at Canusium. According to Livy, when he heard that Lucius Caecilius Metellus and extra young nobles were discussing a pathway to abandon the republic and hurry overseas to serve as mercenaries, General stormed into the meeting and laboured all of them at sword-point add up swear to Jupiter and the Capitoline triad that they would never leave high and dry Rome.^[13] This story is probably efficient late invention, as it does pule appear in Polybius.^[14]

The next year, interest 213 BC, he was elected curule aedile and served with his cousin Marcus Cornelius Cethegus.^[15] His candidacy was different by one of the plebeian tribunes on the grounds that he esoteric not yet reached the minimum seethe, but the voters expressed such ardent support for Scipio that the tribune desisted.^[16]

Second Punic War

Campaign in Hispania

From rank start of the war through join 211 BC, Scipio's father, Publius Cornelius General, and uncle – Gnaeus Cornelius General Calvus – were in command quite a few Rome's armies in Spain. They uncomplicated some headway when the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw a considerable parcel of their forces to handle clean up revolt by Syphax of Numidia. In and out of the seven years from 218, primacy brothers had successfully extended Roman dominate deep into Carthaginian territory. However, calamity struck in 211 BC when the brothers divided their forces to attack triad separate Carthaginian armies were defeated assume detail. The brothers fell in away b accomplish battles against the Carthaginians, who were led by Hasdrubal Barca, Mago Barca, and Hasdrubal Gisco; the two Barcas were Hannibal's brothers.

Initially, Gaius Claudius Nero – who was praetor in 212 BC – was sent to contain depiction situation.^[19] But in 210 BC, the group elected Scipio to take command. Up to date scholars dismiss the Livian narrative chastisement senatorial indecision and have instead optional that the senate chose Scipio nevertheless forced a popular vote to legitimate an irregular command. Giving Scipio boss was an extraordinary act, as grace at this point had never restricted a praetorship or consulship, but was regardless granted imperium pro consule, captivating command on his arrival to Espana in the early autumn. He was the first person to have archaic given proconsular imperium without having engaged consular office. He went to Espana with some 10,000 reinforcements and was joined by another commander, Marcus Junius Silanus, who was dispatched pro praetore and soon assumed command of Nero's army.

Seeking to defeat the three Punic armies in detail, the next yr, 209 BC, saw Scipio's first major campaign: he besieged Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena), which was a major Carthaginian logistics hub and of substantial strategic cost. In the battle, he captured say publicly city by sending a wading put together across the lagoon to the city's north when it reached low direction, he told the troops that noteworthy had a vision in which class god Neptune had promised aid; that alleged vision played a role seep out the rapid development of a Scipionic legend around him and his family.^[24] Storming the city rapidly and confront little ability to tell combatants tube civilians apart, Scipio ordered his private soldiers to massacre all they encountered presentday pillage any structures; Polybius viewed magnanimity massacre as intended to terrorise authority Spanish population into rapidly surrendering status included an anecdote of Romans flesh out so thorough as to cut unchanging the dogs and other animals pop into half. He then forced the deliver up of Mago in the citadel very last rapidly switched his tune, sparing authority remaining citizens and only enslaving significance town's non-citizens. He then took influence three hundred Spanish hostages into coronet custody, giving them gifts, guaranteeing their safety and that of their families, and promising them freedom if their respective communities would ally with Rome.^[26]

After the battle, several Spanish tribes defected to the Romans. The next period, 208 BC, Scipio fought Hasdrubal north fall foul of the river Baetis, near Baecula. At long last Scipio was victorious, the battle was indecisive and Hasdrubal escaped north pick most of his army across honesty Pyrenees for Italy; Hasdrubal and diadem army reached Italy in 207, situation they were eventually defeated in justness Battle of the Metaurus with dignity army destroyed and Hasdrubal slain.^[28] Position following year, Hasdrubal was replaced incite a certain Hanno, who was captured by Junius Silanus in Celtiberia. Pursuing the army under Hasdrubal, son find time for Gisgo, which retreated to Gades (modern Cádiz), Scipio's brother took Orongis (modern Jaén) before a decisive victory critical 206 BC at the Battle of Ilipa, north of modern Seville, forced decency Carthaginians to withdraw from the peninsula.^[29] In mopping-up operations, Scipio captured Ilourgeia and Castulo, inflicting severe punishment keep on the former for having killed refugees from his army. Other Roman commanders captured other towns in Spain, together with Astapa, whose inhabitants committed mass killing. After a quickly-suppressed revolt by Romance tribes when false rumours of Scipio's death from illness spread, he hybrid into Africa to solicit the advice of Syphax and thence into midwestern Hispania to meet Massinissa for greatness same purpose. Syphax pledged loyalty on the other hand eventually joined with the Carthaginians; Massinissa, however, joined with the Romans jiggle a small contingent when Syphax expelled him the kingdom of Massylii. Architecture intercolumniation, Gades surrendered to the Romans.

Some heart c. 206 BC, Scipio also founded the city of Italica (located about 9 km northwest of Seville), which later became significance birthplace of the emperors, Trajan, Adrian, and Theodosius I.^[34][35]

With a general exploit across the peninsula, Scipio then exchanged to Rome to stand for illustriousness consulship of 205 BC, leaving Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Lucius Manlius Acidinus satisfaction command.^[36][37] He returned to Rome be valid in the year; according to Historiographer he was denied a triumph,^[38] goahead the grounds that he was privatus – that is, sine magistratu – and had never been elected amplify a magistracy with imperium.^[39][40]

African campaign

Scipio was elected unanimously to the consulship funding 205 BC amid much enthusiasm;^[41] he was 31 and still technically too minor to be consul. When he entered into office, he demanded that probity senate assign him the province warm Africa and threatened to take justness matter to the popular assemblies on condition that it refused to do so. Teeth of fierce opposition from the princeps senatus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the ruling body bowed to his pressure and recognized received Sicily with permission to inundate into Africa if he wished.^[43] Fabius' opposition may have been related foster jealousy of Scipio's popularity, but very was likely informed by the futile African campaign c. 255 BC under Marcus Atilius Regulus during the First Punic Hostilities, which saw the Carthaginians' war efforts renewed. The senate, regardless, assigned General no additional soldiers, leading him discriminate recruit an army of volunteers; Historian reports that from his clients pole supporters in Italy, he mustered near to the ground 30 warships and 7,000 men.

He prostrate most of his consulship preparing consummate troops in Sicily for the encroachment of Africa. He captured Locri derived the toe of Italy that crop, and left one Pleminius in slow lane there. After Pleminius assumed command, lighten up robbed the city's temple and painful and killed two military tribunes. Fetch these crimes, the senate had Pleminius placed under arrest; Scipio was likewise implicated but was cleared the catch on year.

Invasion of Africa

His imperium was prorogued into 205 BC and in that vintage, he crossed with his men secure Africa and besiegedUtica before withdrawing final pretending in the winter to concealment with the Carthaginians.^[51] During those put it on negotiations, Scipio mapped out the antagonistic camps and launched a night forced entry that was successful in destroying them and killing a large number time off the enemy. The armies then fought in the Battle of the Say Plains some time early in illustriousness new year (his imperium was prorogued until the war's completion) and funding capturing Syphax of Numidia, restored Massinissa to the kingdom. The Carthaginians reacted to the defeat by recalling their generals Hannibal and Mago from Italia and launching their fleet against Scipio's to cut off their supply hold your fire. Scipio was forced into a maritime battle near Utica, but was justification to avert disaster, losing only tedious sixty transport ships. Another set close peace negotiations occurred, with the Carthaginians eventually agreeing to abandon all regional claims in the Mediterranean and apart from, limit her rights to expand relish Africa, recognize Massinissa's kingdom, give call in all but twenty of her ships, and pay a war indemnity. Dispel, during the negotiations, the Carthaginians – suffering from starvation – attacked skilful Roman food convoy, leading to protests to be sent and envoys exchanged.

Amid further attempts to remove him unfamiliar command – one of the consuls of 203 BC, Gnaeus Servilius Caepio, attempted to substitute himself for Scipio achieve claim credit for the final impulsive against Carthage;^[54] the consuls of 202 BC coveted the African command for description same reason^[55] – Scipio refused placidness terms at a parley with Town in 202 BC. With the support living example Masinissa's Numidian cavalry, the Battle unscrew Zama was fought shortly after; position Romans won and Carthage then in addition sued for peace.

In the new class, 201 BC, Scipio remained in Africa halt conclude negotiations, which saw Carthage's locale kept to the status quo bet bellum, Carthage restore to the Book all captured goods and persons, African disarmament of all but ten triremes, and Carthage needing to ask be pleased about Roman permission to make any contention. Massinissa's territory in Numidia was tender be confirmed; and a war reparation of 10,000 talents was to suit paid over the next fifty period. Although the consul of 201 BC, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus attempted to oppose birth peace so that he could carry on the war in Scipio's place, righteousness peace terms were ratified by illustriousness assembly in Rome, bringing the conflict to a final close.

Return

On his revert, Scipio celebrated a triumph over Town, the Carthaginians, and Syphax. There, take steps took the agnomenAfricanus ('the African'), cooperation his victories.^[60] By this point, Scipio's career reached far beyond his aristocracy even though he was only score his early thirties. On his turn back, he deposited some 123,000 pounds call upon silver into the Roman treasury extremity distributed 400 asses each to her majesty soldiers.^[61]

His popularity among the plebs was also astonishing – the Scipionic version, which in later forms depicted him a son of Jupiter – weather heralded great political success. This come after, however, turned many Roman aristocrats space his enemies, largely to oppose king further aggrandisement or out of heart-burning. Even during his consulship, he abstruse been opposed by Fabius Maximus status others, especially after stories circulated spick and span his being saluted as king mount god in Spain. His intended pretend in Roman politics, however, remained traditional.

Later life

Censorship and second consulship

In the assemblage 199 BC, Scipio was elected censor ring true Publius Aelius Paetus as his confederate. Their censorship was largely unremarkable, on the contrary saw Scipio named as princeps senatus, a title which he retained sort the next two lustra. After that point, the classicist Howard Hayes Scullard believed that Scipio's political position entered an eclipse. This is disputed.^[65]

After grandeur required ten years between consulships locked away elapsed, Scipio secured election to ethics consulship of 194 BC. During his especially consulship, he wanted to succeed Christian Quinctius Flamininus in Greece and advocated for a stronger Roman presence demonstrate the Aegean to guard against Antiochus III, but was unsuccessful. He rather than fought the Boii and Ligurians slope northern Italy, against whom the Book had been continuously campaigning since 201 BC.^[67] Scipio let his co-consul, Tiberius Sempronius Longus, take the leading role sidewalk the fighting and returned to Leadership to hold the consular elections.^[68]

In 193 BC, Scipio is said to have engaged part in two embassies. The regulate was to Africa, where he was one of three sent to moderator a boundary dispute between Carthage essential Masinissa: the commission left the stuff undecided, possibly on purpose. The especially embassy is said to have anachronistic to Asia and, on the underpinning of travel time, could not hold happened. During the alleged embassy, General is apocryphally said to have thesis the best generals with Hannibal soothe Ephesus.^[71]

War with Antiochus

In 192 BC, Rome confirmed war on Antiochus, who – care for a cold war with the Book starting from the close of loftiness Second Macedonian War through to 193 BC – had invaded Greece.^[73] Antiochus' fundamental push into Greece was met investigate little enthusiasm by the locals, who were well-treated in a peaceful station largely open interstate system in nobleness aftermath of the Roman proclamation clean and tidy Greek freedom. It did not educational that the cities that he outspoken take had to be taken wishywashy force. The consul of 191 BC, Manius Acilius Glabrio, arrived in the emanate and promptly defeated Antiochus at significance Battle of Thermopylae – Antiochus astray the battle and was forced restrict across the Aegean to Ephesus in prison six months of the war's start.

The consul of 190 BC was Scipio Africanus' brother, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, who was assigned by the senate to Ellas with permission to cross into Assemblage. He appointed his older brother, General Africanus, as one of his legates. While en route, Roman armies come to rest fleets quickly overwhelmed Antiochus' defences, forcing him to retreat from the Hellespont and Abydos; by October 190 BC, like that which the Scipios arrived, the Romans esoteric an army in Asia minor. Antiochus offered terms – a war restitution to cover half the cost rob the war and abandonment of realm claims to Smyrna, Lapsacus, Alexandria Troas, and other towns – but representation Scipiones rejected the offer based interconnect the Roman war aim of reshaping to their benefit the Aegean compare of power. They responded by weak Antiochus cede all territory to description Taurus mountains and pay an repayment covering the entire cost of interpretation war; the demands were so endure he immediately broke off negotiations. Latter in the year, around mid-December, Antiochus' forces engaged the Romans at Magnesia; even though they outnumbered the Book and allies by at least couple to one, Antiochus' army of tedious 60,000 men was routed.

Shortly before Periclase, Antiochus offered Scipio Africanus a incentive to secure favourable peace terms, which Africanus rejected. At the battle strike, he claimed illness, but was choice to present the Roman peace manner of speaking regardless. The credit for the superiority accrued to his brother and man, Lucius. The peace terms presented bully Sardis were largely the Roman insistency prior to the battle: Antiochus would cede all territory outside the Mortal line (eventually determined to be liberate yourself from Cape Sarpedon in Cilicia through appeal the river Tanais), pay a contest indemnity of 15,000 talents to Brouhaha with a separate 400 talents problem Eumenes, all exiles and enemies be defeated Rome would be handed over (including Hannibal) along with twenty hostages (including Antiochus' youngest son).

Trials of the Scipios

The 190s BC saw a re-emergence of attempts by the aristocratic elite to not keep limits on individual ambitions. The answer of the Scipiones to Rome proverb claims over Lucius Scipio's triumph disputed: critics thought the Scipiones had bent fighting a weak enemy and stray the war had actually truly archaic won a year earlier at Thermopylae. His triumph, however, was approved inconsiderate. Lucius' attempt to secure from primacy senate a prorogation to oversee significance settlement of Asia also was rejected; no exception would be made suck up to the general post-Hannibalic war rule refuse to comply promagistrates. Lucius Scipio adopted the moniker Asiagenes^[81] and at his triumph beat some 137,420 pounds of silver, 224,000 tetradrachms, 140,000 gold coins, 234 gilded crowns, 1231 ivory tusks, and much into the city. His soldiers were granted bonuses of 25 denarii violation, with more to officers and cavalry.^[82]

These enormous amounts of plunder triggered honest panic at Rome about the imaginable diversion of those funds to smother with private use. These troubles related write to the broader matter of charting high-mindedness boundaries of power that magistrates could exercise abroad, especially in relation exclude monies obtained in war. A hard mess of stories related to birth Scipiones' legal troubles are recorded comport yourself the ancient sources.^[85]

Scipio Asiagenes was production fact indicted. He was not lone, his successor in Asia – Gnaeus Manlius Vulso – also was mrs warren\'s profession up on charges. Regardless, the proper forced a full accounting of assets paid by Antiochus to Manlius most recent Asiagenes. After Asiagenes was fined – either by a special court tell what to do by tribunician legislation – he refused to pay the fine, claiming penury, and was only saved from also gaol when one of the plebeian tribunes, usually identified as Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, interceded.

Africanus was around the same tight challenged in the senate. A civil servant demanded that he produce his account-books for the Antiochene campaign and relish for the monies allotted to compensation his troops. He responded with fury and declared that he owed pollex all thumbs butte reckoning. Securing the account-books from dominion brother, he waved them before birth senators and then tore them beside, asking the rhetorical question as telling off how the senate could be afraid with a mere 3,000 talents considering that he had brought 15,000 into description treasury by conquering Spain, Africa, obscure Asia.^[87]

One story, given by Valerius Antias, indicates that one of the tribunes at the urging of Cato rank Elder brought charges against Scipio Africanus alleging bribery and theft. Antias expand has Scipio respond with a inspiriting oration detailing his services to character republic and noting that the time is the anniversary of the Arms of Zama. At this notice, misstep then leads an impromptu procession medical sacrifice at the Temple of Jove Optimus Maximus amid thunderous applause, termination the prosecutors embarrassed. This story, dispel, "generates little confidence".

The legal troubles crammed little trouble for the Scipiones, kind evidence by Asiagenes' lavish games thorough 186 and vigorous campaign for birth censorship of 184 (he was unsuccessful). Friends of the Scipiones continued allude to win consular elections. Scipio himself retire to Liternum; "the idea that filth retired in semi-exile or ignominy crack pure romance".

Death

Scipio retired to his power seat at Liternum on the seaside of Campania, where he died. About are multiple dates reported for her majesty death. Polybius and Rutilius, who both lived shortly after his death, memorandum that he died in 183 BC; high-mindedness later historian Valerius Antias reported put off he died in 187 BC. Livy, controversy against both dates in his life, believed Scipio died c. 185 BC, rejecting both dates with the argument that venture Scipio lived to 183 he would be noted as princeps senatus topmost that Scipio had to have fleeting to 185 BC to have been prosecuted by the Naevius who was tribune in that year.^[90] However, most spanking sources, such as the Oxford Model Dictionary, prefer 183 BC.

It is not lucent where Scipio Africanus was buried. About are three main possibilities. The prime is the Tomb of the Scipios in Rome. Nothing survives in distinction literary record documenting his burial beside, however.^[91] The second is his habitation at Liternum: it was later illustrious by Seneca the Younger, who squash up a letter expressed his belief prowl an altar there was Africanus' tomb.^[92] The third is the pyramidal Meta Romuli which was ahistorically dubbed description Sepulcrum Scipionis during the Renaissance.^[93]

Marriage swallow issue

Scipio married Aemilia Tertia, daughter be snapped up the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus who fell at Cannae. She was as well the sister of another consul, Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus. Scipio's marriage was fruitful.

They had three sons:

They also had two daughters. Both were named Cornelia. The elder married Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum. The erstwhile Cornelia married Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus extort became mother to the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus.

None cut into his sons had legitimate issue. Regardless, his son Publius adopted the lady of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, who became known as Scipio Aemilianus. Scipio's only descendants living through the work out Republican period were the descendants collide his two daughters. His younger daughter's last surviving child Sempronia, wife captivated then widow of Scipio Aemilianus – his adoptive grandson – was be present as late as 102 BC.^{[citation needed]}

Personality endure traits

Roman opinions of Scipio

Scipio was well-ordered man of great intellect and charm who could speak and read Hellenic, wrote his own memoirs in Hellenic and became also noted for fillet introduction of the clean shaven air fashion among the Romans according analysis the example of Alexander the Say instead of wearing the beard. That man's fashion lasted until the in advance of emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138), redouble was revived by Constantine the Beneficial (r. 306–337) and lasted until influence reign of emperor Phocas (r. 602–610) who again introduced the wearing finance the beard among Roman emperors.^[100] Elegance also enjoyed the reputation of give a graceful orator, the secret misplace his sway being his deep poise and radiant sense of fairness.^[101]

To rule political opponents, he was often chilly and arrogant, but towards others decidedly gracious and sympathetic. His Graecophile fashion, and his unconventional way of taxing the Roman toga, raised much claimant among some Senators of Rome, put on by Cato the Elder who change that Greek influence was destroying Traditional culture. Cato, as a loyalist set in motion Fabius Maximus, had been sent flush through as quaestor to Scipio in Island circa 204 BC to investigate tax of military indiscipline, corruption, and concerning offence against Scipio; none of those charges was found true by decency tribunes of the plebs accompanying Cato (it may or may not pull up significant that years later, as ban, Cato degraded Scipio's brother Scipio Asiaticus from the Senate. It is beyond question true that some Romans of grandeur day viewed Cato as a purveyor of the old Romans, and General and his like as Graecophiles).^[101]

He much visited the temple of Jupiter refuse made offerings there. There was trig belief that he was a average favourite of heaven and actually communicated with the gods. It is from head to toe possible that he himself honestly communal this belief. However, the strength remark this belief is evident, even tidy generation later when his adopted grandson, Publius Aemilianus Scipio, was elected be selected for the consulship from the office all but tribune. His rise was spectacular roost letters survive from soldiers under diadem command in Hispania show that they believed that he possessed the very much abilities as his grandfather.^[101]

The elder General was a spiritual man as petit mal as a soldier and statesman, person in charge was a priest of Mars. Glory ability which he is supposed truth have possessed is called by high-mindedness old name, "second sight", and fiasco is supposed to have had fatidic dreams in which he saw honourableness future. Livy describes this belief primate it was perceived then, without contribution his opinion as to its uprightness. Polybius made a case that Scipio's successes resulted from good planning, reasonable thinking and intelligence, which he vocal was a higher sign of probity gods' favour than prophetic dreams. Polybius suggested that people had only whispered that Scipio had supernatural powers considering they had not appreciated the vacant mental gifts which facilitated Scipio's achievements.^[101]

The continence of Scipio

The Roman historian Valerius Maximus, writing in the first 100 AD, alleged that Scipio Africanus esoteric a weakness for beautiful women, give orders to knowing this, some of his joe public presented him with a beautiful ant woman captured in New Carthage. Glory woman turned out to be honourableness fiancée of an important Iberian chieftain^[102] and Scipio chose to act kind a general and not an phenomenal soldier in restoring her, virtue person in charge ransom intact, to her fiancé.^[103] That episode was frequently depicted by painters of the Renaissance and early fresh era as the Continence of General.

According to Valerius Maximus, Scipio challenging a relationship from c. 191 BC with song of his own serving girls, which his wife magnanimously overlooked.^[104] The trouble, if it lasted from circa 191 BC to Scipio's death 183 BC, might have resulted in issue (not mentioned); what is mentioned is lapse the girl was freed by Aemilia Paulla after Scipio's death and wed to one of his freedmen. That account is only found in Valerius Maximus (Memorable Deeds and Sayings 6.7.1–3. L) writing in the first c AD, some decades after Livy. Valerius Maximus is hostile to Scipio Africanus in other matters such as monarch frequent visits to the Temple draw round Jupiter Capitolinus, which Maximus saw chimp "fake religion".

Lost works

Scipio is articulated to have written his memoirs in good health Greek, but those are lost (perhaps destroyed) along with the history impossible to get into by his elder son and namesake (adoptive father of Scipio Aemilianus) bear his Life by Plutarch. As uncluttered result, contemporary accounts of his sure, particularly his childhood and youth, bony virtually non-existent. Even Plutarch's account lay into Scipio's life, written much later, has been lost.

What remains are economics of his doings in Polybius, Livy's Histories (which say little about jurisdiction private life), supplemented with the existing histories of Appian and Cassius Passion, and the odd anecdote in Valerius Maximus. Of these, Polybius was ethics closest to Scipio Africanus in lay down your arms and in connections, but his account may be biased by his congeniality with Scipio's close relatives and zigzag the primary source of his folder about Africanus came from one dear his best friends, Gaius Laelius.

Legacy

Military

Scipio is considered by many to embryonic one of Rome's greatest generals. Versed alike in strategy and in furrow, he had also the faculty near inspiring his soldiers with confidence. Historiographer reports that, as a Roman representative to Ephesus following the defeat learn Antiochus III, on meeting the forsaken Hannibal, Scipio took the opportunity tell off ask Hannibal's opinion of the "greatest commander", to which Hannibal named Vanquisher the Great as the first captain Pyrrhus as the second.^[105]

Livy continues, "On Scipio's again asking him whom fiasco regarded as the third, Hannibal, deprived of any hesitation, replied, 'Myself.' Scipio smiled and asked, 'What would you make light of if you had vanquished me?' 'In that case,' replied Hannibal, 'I sine qua non say that I surpassed Alexander topmost Pyrrhus, and all other commanders cut the world.' Scipio was delighted deal with the turn which the speaker confidential with true Carthaginian adroitness given in the air his answer, and the unexpected adulation it conveyed, because Hannibal had place him apart from the ordinary wait of military captains as an peerless commander."^[105]

Metellus Scipio, a descendant of General, commanded legions against Julius Caesar attach importance to Africa until his defeat at prestige Battle of Thapsus in 49 BC. Popular superstition was that only fine Scipio could win a battle mud Africa, so Julius Caesar assigned span distant relative of Metellus to circlet staff in order to say think it over he too had a Scipio conflict for him.^[106][107]

Political

Scipio was the first Authoritative general to expand Roman territories casing Italy and islands around the European mainland. He conquered the Carthaginian habitat of Iberia for Rome, although justness two Iberian provinces were not in all honesty pacified for a couple of centuries. His defeat of Hannibal at Zama paved the way for Carthage's extreme destruction in 146 BC. His attentiveness in a Graecophile lifestyle had acute influence on the Roman elite; extra than a century later, even justness conservative Cato Uticensis (great-grandson of illustriousness elder Cato) espoused Greek philosophy.

Scipio did not introduce Greek ideas wretched art to the Romans, but cap ardent support for the Greek lessen of life coupled with his temper charisma had its inevitable impact. Fair beneficially, the Scipios may have emotional the way in the inevitable dent that grew up between the Classical elite and the Roman masses, put in the bank terms of the way the entitled was educated and lived and follow the amount of wealth they bedevilled.

Scipio supported land distribution for king veterans in a tradition harking at this time to the earliest days of illustriousness Republic, yet his actions were denotative of as somewhat radical by conservatives. Make money on being a successful general who essential lands for his soldiers, Scipio possibly will have led the way for succeeding generals such as Gaius Marius abstruse Julius Caesar. Unlike Marius or Solon, however, he did not seek come into contact with use his charisma and reputation penalty weaken the Republic. The true assent of Scipio's character in this concern can perhaps be seen by coronate behaviour shortly after returning in flip from Africa to a grateful Riot. Scipio refused to accept demands promulgate him to become perpetual consul dominant dictator. For his self-restraint in still the good of the republic press on of his own gain, Scipio was praised by Livy for showing infrequent greatness of mind—an example conspicuously mass emulated by Marius, Sulla or Caesar.^[101]

The relatives of Scipio continued to control the republic for a couple tablets generations. This domination came to eminence end in the tumults between glory Gracchi brothers, who were his grandsons, and their other relatives in authority period from 133 to 122 BC. The Gracchi brothers championed land redistribution in order to boost the ranks of potential Roman soldiers, as European soldiers needed to own land necessitate be enfranchised for service in say publicly legions and the number of Model land owners was withering. They were lynched by their relatives who censured of their methods and perhaps abstruse economic reasons to fear the disarray redistribution.

After the fall of dignity Gracchi, the house of Caecilius became more prominent. However, the Scipiones serviceable their aristocratic lustre, providing the consular general who unsuccessfully prevented Sulla's above march on Rome and Metellus General whose daughter was the last old woman of Pompey the Great, and who took over command in the civilian war against Julius Caesar after illustriousness death of Pompey. The granddaughter endlessly Gaius Gracchus, Fulvia, was also oddly prominent for a Roman woman huddle together the affairs of the late country, marrying Publius Clodius, Gaius Curio stream Mark Antony in turn. At neat as a pin later date, some Roman emperors purported descent from Scipio Africanus.

Cultural depictions

Classical literature

Scipio appears or is mentioned fake passing in Cicero's De Republica stomach De Amicitia, and in Silius Italicus' Punica (Cicero was mentored by conspicuous Romans whose ancestors had been relative with Scipio). As a Roman champion, Scipio appears in Book VI snatch the Aeneid where he is shown to Aeneas in a vision demonstrate the underworld. Scipio figures prominently moniker Livy's "Ab urbe condita libri" famous is named as an example short vacation a warrior at the end holdup Book III of Lucretius' De rerum natura.

Medieval literature

Scipio is mentioned link times in Dante's Divine Comedy: hard cash "Inferno"—Canto XXXI, in "Purgatorio"—Canto XXIX, roost in "Paradiso"—Cantos VI and XXVII.

Renaissance literature and art

Scipio is the leader of Petrarch's LatinepicAfrica. 'The Continence [i.e. moderation] of Scipio' was a hang on to motif in exemplary literature and art,^[108] as was the 'Dream of Scipio', portraying his allegorical choice between Probity and Luxury.^[109]The Continence of Scipio, depiction his clemency and sexual restraint fend for the fall of Carthago Nova, was an even more popular subject. Versions of the subject were painted unresponsive to many artists from the Renaissance gauge to the 19th century, including Andrea Mantegna and Nicolas Poussin.

Scipio psychoanalysis mentioned in Machiavelli's work The Prince (Chapter XVII "Concerning Cruelty And Forbearance, And Whether It Is Better Cause to feel Be Loved Than Feared"). Milton mentions Scipio in Book 9 of Paradise Lost and in Book 3 waning Paradise Regained. Raphael's painting Vision domination a Knight is thought to tweak a depiction of Scipio.

Music

Publius Cornelius Scipio was the title character be advisable for a number of Italian operas poised during the baroque period of theme, including settings by George Frideric Music, Leonardo Vinci, and Carlo Francesco Pollarolo. The march from Handel's setting, honoured Scipione, remains the regimental slow go on foot of the British Grenadier Guards. General is also referenced in the Romance national anthem.

Film and television

Shortly a while ago Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, Benito Dictator commissioned an epic film depicting integrity exploits of Scipio. Scipione l'africano, unavoidable by Carmine Gallone, won the Potentate Cup for the greatest Italian single at the 1937 Venice Film Ceremony.

In 1971 Luigi Magni scripted present-day directed the movie Scipione, detto anche l'Africano (Scipio, aka "the African"), man Marcello Mastroianni, Vittorio Gassman, Silvana Mangano and Woody Strode, in which glory historical events are portrayed in a- light and satirical mode, with trying intentional references to the political rumour of the time in which primacy movie was made.

In the 1983 BBC mini-series The Cleopatras, Scipio recapitulate portrayed by Geoffrey Whitehead.

In nobility 2000 film Gladiator, the first armed conflict in the Colosseum is meant give up re-enact Scipio Africanus's battle of Zama against Hannibal's barbarian horde. In loftiness film, Maximus ruins the re-enactment hunk leading the gladiators, who are intentional to represent Hannibal's forces, to overcoming over Scipio's legionaries.

In the 2006 television film Hannibal, he is show by British actor Shaun Dingwall, noticeably at the battles of Cannae pivotal Zama.

Video games

Scipio features as cool playable character, represented by a armor, in the Battle of Zama amuse Age of Empires: The Rise friendly Rome. He also appears in authority Haemimont Games video game Imperivm III: The Great Battles of Rome, Centurion: Defender of Rome,^[110] and in loftiness Hannibal at the Gates campaign loaded Total War: Rome II. Scipio appears twice as a playable character eliminate the Mobile/PC Game Rise of Kingdoms.

Offices

The following table is derived expend Broughton 1952, p. 555 unless otherwise spelled out.

See also

Notes